#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>
int x;
void f(int z) {
int x;
x = 1;
printf("Here!\n");
}
int main(void) {
int y;
x = 3;
y = 4;
f(y);
return 0;
}
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A program's memory can be divided into four parts: program code and constants, static data, heap and stack.
When the execution of this program prints "Here!", we stop the program and look at its memory. There will be a number of storage spaces for integers, containing some integers between 1 and 4. Draw a picture of what the static data, the stack and the heap contains, with those storage spaces and their contents. Explain what they are, and what they correspond to in the source code. Your explanation should include the terms "static data", "stack", "heap", "activation record" (also called "stack frame" or in Swedish "aktiveringspost"), "variable" and "parameter".
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>
int a;
int b;
int *p;
void f(int c, int d) {
int b;
p = malloc(sizeof(int));
*p = 10;
int *p;
p = malloc(sizeof(int));
*p = 11;
a = 12;
b = 13;
printf("Here!\n");
}
void g(int h) {
int i;
p = malloc(sizeof(int));
*p = 14;
int *p = malloc(sizeof(int));
int a = 15;
b = 16;
i = 17;
*p = 18;
f(h, 19);
}
int main(void) {
int k;
int m, a;
k = 20;
a = 21;
b = 22;
g(k);
printf("Done!\n");
return 0;
}
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We again stop the execution of the program when it prints "Here!", and look at its memory. Draw a picture of what the static data, the stack and the heap contains, with those storage spaces and their contents. Explain what they are, and what they correspond to in the source code.
The program in the question above ends its execution after it prints "Done!" in main. If the program instead had continued running, doing something else, at the end of the main function, some of the memory allocated with malloc in f and g would be lost, also called a memory leak, at least until the program ends and all its memory is reclaimed by the operating system.
a) Explain why the memory is lost.
b) Let's say that the automatic garbage collector runs immediately after the program has printed "Here!". Which memory will be reclaimed? Also explain how the automatic garbage collection could have found, and reclaimed, the memory.
c) Let's say that the automatic garbage collector runs immediately after the program has printed "Done!". Which memory will be reclaimed now?
#include <stdio.h>
void h(int a) {
int b = a + 10;
printf("Here!\n");
}
void g(int a) {
int b;
if (a < 6) {
g(a + 1);
}
else {
b = a + 2;
h(b + 3);
g(a + 1);
}
}
void f(int a) {
g(a + 1);
}
int main(void) {
f(3);
return 0;
}
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When the execution of this program prints "Here!" for the first time, we stop the program and look at its memory, especially the stack. The stack will contain a number of activation records, with some places for storing integers.
a) Draw the stack, with activation records, storage places, and contents. Explain what they correspond to in the source code.
b) What will happen if the program continues running for a while? Why?
c) Does the answer to question b above depend on your compiler settings, especially optimization settings?
We sometimes use "pointer" and "reference" as synonyms, for example when talking about "reference counting". In some other contexts we need to differentiate between them. For example, C++ has both pointers (which are memory addresses of variables) and references (which are aliases for variables). C++ compilers can use pointers to implement references, but not always, and conceptually they are different things.
Here is a C++ program:
int g = 1;
void f(int i, int& r, int* p, int*& rp) {
i = 2;
r = 3;
*p = 4;
p = &g;
*rp = 5;
rp = &g;
// Here!
}
int main(void) {
int a = 6;
int b = 7;
int c = 8;
int* d = &c;
int* e = &c;
int& h = c;
f(a, b, d, e);
}
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The parameter i is a normal call-by-value parameter, receiving an integer. r is a reference parameter, to an integer variable. p is a call-by-value parameter, even though it receives a pointer. rp is a reference parameter, to a pointer variable.
In the main function, a, b and c are normal integer variables. d and e are pointer variables, and they contain pointers to c. h is a reference variable, which is an unusual feature that C++ has, and it is an alias for the variable c. h has no memory of its own.
We stop the program when execution reaches the comment "Here!". Draw a picture of the stack, showing activation records, variables, parameters, integers and pointers.
As some more or less helpful hints, here are the memory locations of the variables in main from when I ran the program:
a is at 0xf63c b is at 0xf640 c is at 0xf644 d is at 0xf648 e is at 0xf650 h is at 0xf644Here are the locations of the parameters in f:
i is at 0xf60c r is at 0xf640 p is at 0xf600 rp is at 0xf650Values before the call to f:
a = 6, b = 7, c = 8, d = 0xf644, *d = 8, e = 0xf644, *e = 8, h = 8Values after the call to f:
a = 6, b = 3, c = 5, d = 0xf644, *d = 5, e = 0x8010, *e = 1, h = 5
There are some solutions to some of the questions, but try to solve them yourself first.